发布时间：2020-07-15 15:08浏览数：6380评论数：1 收藏
英语作为通用语（English as a Lingua Franca, ELF）研究对全球化过程中的英语进行了崭新的诠释，颠覆了传统意义上本族语英语使用者和非本族语英语使用者之间的区分，对传统的将标准英语视为非本族语英语使用者的唯一参考标准之观点进行了批判，强调英语使用的多样性，以及英语标准的多元化。这一崭新视角对传统英语研究与教学带来挑战，也为英语研究与教学带来无限创新机遇。目前，基于该视角的研究涉及语音、词汇、语法、语用、语篇分析、跨文化交际过程、文化、身份、态度等各方面。
ELF课题研究在欧洲已经取得长足发展，在亚洲正在逐渐形成规模。那么，产生于欧洲的ELF研究对中国环境中的英语教学及应用语言学研究有着怎样的启示与意义？本期热点邀请多年从事英语作为通用语研究的国际知名学者围绕ELF课题就其研究发展及相关交叉课题研究方向进行简要介绍，旨在促进中国的英语教育工作者与研究者对ELF课题及相关交叉研究领域的进一步探索以及对英语教学的思考。
Jennifer Jenkins 教授
专家简介
My life in ELF
I first became interested in the phenomenon of ELF when I was an EFL teacher in the 1980s. At that time, ELF was not considered a phenomenon worth investigating: it was simply regarded as ‘bad English’. However, I noticed that the way my students, non-native English speakers from many different first language backgrounds, were communicating in English with each other was highly effective, even though much of their English was ‘incorrect’ according to standard native English. I also observed that they were very good at adjusting their English to make it more intelligible for their conversation partners (a process known as accommodation) on the occasions when they did not understand each other. For example, they made changes to their pronunciation, and replaced idiomatic language with more neutral expressions.
From my observation of these students, I developed my beliefs about ELF communication. That is, I realised that as non-native English speakers are the global majority (Chinese people being a large proportion of this global majority), as they communicate with each other more often than with native English speakers, and as their communication is often effective, it was pointless for them to have to try to acquire native-like English – the kind of English that native speakers use among themselves. Instead, I realised, it was crucial to find out more about how English is used in its lingua franca role. I therefore began my PhD exploring ELF communication. I completed the PhD in 1995, and in 1996 published a short article (in the IATEFL Newsletter) arguing that the term EFL should be changed to ELF. I also began working on my first major book (2000) on ELF, The Phonology of English as an International Language, in which I did not use the name ELF because it was not yet widely known. As the first major publication to explore ELF, this book caused both excitement and controversy, and led directly to the establishment of ELF as a major field of study.
My ELF research has been underpinned from the beginning by my conceptualisation of some key differences between ELF and traditional EFL, which are summed up in the table below:
|
ELF |
EFL |
|
1. Belongs with Global Englishes |
1. Belongs with Foreign Languages |
|
2. Difference perspective |
2. Deficit perspective |
|
3. Its metaphors: contact and change |
3. Its metaphors: interference and fossilization |
|
4. Code-switching seen as bilingual resource |
4. Code-switching seen a error resulting from gap in knowledge |
|
5. Goal: successful intercultural communication |
5. Goal: successful communication with native English speakers |
(First published in Jenkins J. 2006, ‘Points of view and blind spots: ELF and SLA’. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 16/2:137-162.)
Following the publication of my early ELF research, I have devoted myself to developing the field, first in respect of ELF in general, and since 2008 in relation to ELF in higher education and issues relating to English as the medium of instruction (EMI) in international universities. This has more recently become a ‘hot’ topic in ELF research.
Will Baker 讲师
专家简介
Culture and English as a lingua franca
The relationships between cultures and languages have been of interest to linguists for many centuries through the work of Humbolt, Boas, Sapir and Whorf, to name a few. Do languages reflect, or even contain, the cultures and thoughts of nations and peoples? Can there be such a thing as a culturally neutral language? In its most extreme formulation, what is referred to as the strong interpretation of linguistic relativity, it has been suggested that the language we speak both constructs and constrains our world view. However, such strong correlations between a language, a culture and a nation are challenged in our increasingly globalised world where languages cannot be confined by national boundaries.
This is particularly the case for the English language which has become a global lingua franca on a scale never seen before. It is currently estimated that lingua franca users of English outnumber native speakers of the language by at least 4 to 1. In such diverse communicative settings it would clearly be naïve to expect English to necessarily be linked to the cultures of the traditional Anglophone countries (such as the US or UK). At the same time participants in ELF communication are not restricted to representing and constructing cultural practices and references associated with their L1 or ‘home’ culture. Instead what we observe is English used to express and create dynamic and constantly changing cultural references and practices. Thus we see a French L1 (first language) speaker using English to discuss the Japanese originated practice of ‘cos plays’ (costume plays) in a café in Bangkok. We can observe a Chinese student and Thai student discuss their shared Chinese ancestry through English in an online discussion forum but refuse to be tied into any fixed national identity and culture.
Such complex and diverse perspectives on the relationships between language and culture have important implications for English language teaching (ELT). Firstly, it suggests that successful users of English need to be equipped to negotiate such cultural diversity. Secondly, the content of ELT materials needs to reflect this diversity of cultures.
In my own research I have focused on investigating how users of English as a lingua franca (ELF) both represent and construct cultures in intercultural communication. I have also explored how these research insights into the fluidity of culture and language through ELF can be translated into teaching materials and activities. Recognising that English is a global lingua franca with a global range of cultural references is becoming increasingly significant for ELT if it is to meet the needs of today’s learners and users of English.
Martin Dewey 讲师
专家简介
English as a lingua franca & English language teaching
My interest in ELF began while working as a teacher trainer in London, which occurred around the time I was beginning to identify a research focus for a PhD. During classroom observations I noticed that novice teachers would focus on student language in rather ineffective ways. In particular, they were so concerned with lesson aims and ‘correcting’ students in line with the ‘target language’ forms being practiced, that they were unable to see the many effective ways students were able to adapt the language in order to communicate. Ever since, I have been interested in examining what ELF research tells us about how speakers in ELF interactions modify, blend together, and respond to language resources in collaborative ways. This led to my doctoral research project, which documented some of the ways lexis and grammar in ELF settings differ from standard native speaker (NS) Englishes, but do so in systematic and communicatively competent ways.
More recently I have focused on trying to understand how to incorporate an ELF perspective in pedagogic practice. Established ELT principles have long been based on the assumption that reasons for learning English relate to its use as a first language in the conventional NS territories (primarily the UK and USA). This has therefore meant that materials, syllabus content, assessment and teaching methods continue to be based almost exclusively on British and/or American norms. Research in ELF has shown, however, that NSE is not in fact optimal for interaction in linguistically and culturally diverse settings. In ELF interaction, what matters most is using language flexibly and in a listener-oriented, strategic way. So while ELT continues to promote correctness in line with British and American standards, the English used by ELF speakers continues to take on a life of its own, developing in ways that suit the communicative needs of a particular setting, whether or not (sometimes precisely because not) this use conforms to established norms.
For teachers to approach language in a way that better reflects English globally, we need to raise better awareness among teachers – ideally among novice teachers during initial teacher education – of the exceptional variability and dynamicity of English language in communication. Instead of fixating on adherence to predetermined language norms, we need to promote a reconceptualized notion of language and communicative competence – that is, one that fits better with the realities of language in use. Understanding the role and nature of English/es globally is particularly important for teachers in China. As the largest market for ELT worldwide, it is essential that the local knowledge and expertise of Chinese teachers of English is properly recognized and valued. The continued promotion of NS norms serves only the interest of ‘native’ (this concept itself needs further re-evaluation) speaking teachers, materials writers, publishers and exam boards located in the UK and USA. Unqualified, inexperienced NS teachers of English will only continue to command favourable salaries, favourable employment contracts and favourable training opportunities in China and elsewhere in East and South East Asia while the nativeness fallacy remains unchallenged. The more teachers and learners become aware of ELF, the more likely we are to overcome this situation. It is through knowing about the realities of ELF interaction that teachers in China can lay better claim to their ownership of English and language teaching expertise.
王颖
专家简介
中国英语教学应立足于中国人才培养的实际语言需求
传统的中国英语教学突出强调两点。一点是以标准英语为核心；一点是立足于文化表达。标准英语以本族语英语使用者（native English speakers）的语言样本为基础；文化表达则集中体现在英美文化介绍和中国文化表达。在传统英语教学思维中，不符合标准英语规范的英语表达通常被视为错误；学习英美文化则通常被视为学习地道英语的重要手段。
然而，英语在全球范围内蓬勃发展，产生了多样性的不符合标准英语模式的英语形式；同时，非本族语英语使用者（non-native English speakers）已逐渐成为英语使用者的多数群体，从而决定英语未来发展趋势。在文化表达上，英语早已突破英美文化的疆界，与使用英语的各个不同文化群体结合在一起，形成了英语中的多元文化。因此，以标准英语为模式并侧重于英美文化表达的传统英语教学，不能解释在大多数英语使用者群体中所产生的英语现象，更不能适应英语发展的未来趋势。进一步而言，以标准英语规范为语言参照样本来定义英语使用错误已经不再具有现实意义；单一强调英美文化和地道英语则会导致一叶障目，遮掩英语的多元化现实。
中国人使用英语以进行国际交流为主要目的，依赖于英语作为通用语的功能，即，没有共同母语背景的交际者所需要的交流媒介功能。换言之，中国人使用英语不局限在与本族语英语使用者的交流中；英语使用经常体现在中国人与其他非本族语英语使用者（比如泰国人或者西班牙人）进行交流的过程中。因此，以标准英语和英美文化为主体的英语教学不能反映中国人使用英语的实际需求。在一带一路大背景下，以标准英语和英美文化为主导的英语教学更是凸显其局限性。鉴于英语在全球范围内的发展趋势，以及英语教学对人才培养的意义，中国英语教学应着眼于中国人使用英语的实际情况。
基于英语作为通用语功能，被传统英语教学思维中所诟病的中国的英语学习者常见错误，以及带有中国文化表达痕迹的英语输出形式，应重新审视其语言文化价值。针对英语作为通用语功能所开展的学术研究（请参见2015年外研社举办ELF8），从英语所有权为核心问题展开讨论，呼吁尊重全球英语多样化的语言现实，为中国英语使用者自己定义（而非由标准英语定义）符合中国英语使用者实际语言需求和身份价值认同的英语表达提供了理论依据。中国英语使用群体所共有的规律性的英语表达，应被视作英语多样化的一种表现，应着眼于其自身价值而不应该向标准英语规范看齐，而不是套用单一的标准英语模式，对其进行衡量与对错评价。
简言之，中国英语教学应着眼于中国人才培养的实际英语使用需求。中国英语使用者不符合标准英语规范的英语表达应重新定义，从而实现符合中国英语使用者语言需求与身份价值认同的英语话语构建。
注：以上内容摘录自K12学业质量改进联盟公众号推文《中国英语教学应着眼于中国人使用英语的实际情况》和《中国英语使用者不符合标准英语规范的英语表达应重新定义》。详细阐述可参阅最新出版专著: Wang, Ying. (2020). Language ideologies in the Chinese context: orientations to English as a lingua franca. (In book series Developments in English as a Lingua Franca). Mouton de Gruyter.
文秋芳 教授
专家简介
英语通用语的教学框架
在全球化背景下，英语使用的范围不断扩大。交际可能发生在英语本族语者与非英语本族语者之间，例如中国人与英国人或美国人；更多的时候是，双方都是非英语本族语者，例如，中国人与瑞典人或泰国人。鉴于英语在世界范围内充当了国际语的作用，不少学者提出，非本族语者学习英语成功的标准不该再以本族语为参照体系，而应该是在全球化背景下交际的有效性。虽然这一议题在理论上的争辩空间不大，但有不少操作层面上的问题难以解决。最棘手的是，如果不用本族语者的英语作为标准，那教师该教什么英语，学生该学习什么英语呢？目前提出的建议大致有两种。一种认为，可以用本国英语学习成功者的英语作为标准；另一种认为，可以对英语通用语进行分析、描述，逐步对其进行规范。一旦英语通用语有了规范体系，二语学习者就可以以此为学习对象。持这种看法的人认为，虽然完成这项任务很艰巨，但可以逐步实现。
上述两种建议存在明显问题。“以二语学习成功者为标准”的建议看似可行，但有许多实际问题难以解决，例如谁是成功的二语学习者？用什么标准来衡量所谓的“成功”？第二种建议混淆了交际功能与交际结果。英语通用语只是虚拟社区交际的工具，既没有本族语者，又没有自己固有的文化。在交际过程中，双方通过不断协商、不断调整，共同构建了一个双方能够相互理解的体系。因此英语通用语只是一种功能，而不是一种相对稳定、规范的语言体系。第二种建议还混淆了英语通用语的商务交际功能与文化交流功能。商务交流可以用全世界范围内相对比较统一、规范的语言，而文化交流必然带有各文化自身的特殊烙印，这些带有文化特色的语言表达方式是不可能存在于规范后的“英语通用语”中。
为了兼顾英语通用语的商务功能与文化交流功能，又不用英语本族语作为唯一标准，作者从教学视角提出了英语通用语的教学框架（见图1）。该框架充分考虑了运用英语通用语交际的复杂性与动态性，融合了全球化与本土化两者的需求。本框架包含两个维度：1）对语言的看法；2）对教学的看法。该框架将英语分析为语言、文化与语用三个子系统。
教学内容和教学预期结果也相应地根据这三个子系统设定语言的教学内容包括本族语变体、非本族语变体与本土化特征。换句话说，教学内容要覆盖这三部分。学习者从开始阶段学习本族语变体，达到理解和表达的要求，中级阶段开始接触非本族语变体，达到理解的要求，高级阶段开始学习英语的本土化特征，满足表达的需要，即能用英语向其他国家的人士描述自己的文化。
文化的教学内容包括本族语文化、非本族语文化和本土文化。文化内容没有规定的教学顺序。但由于文化内容的认知复杂程度不尽相同，教学时需要考虑学习者的认知水平，特别是儿童学习者。文化内容教学的期待结果是发展学生的跨文化能力。跨文化能力由三部分组成：对文化差异的敏感性，对文化差异的宽容度，处理文化差异的灵活性。
语用的教学内容包括三方面的规则：普世通用规则、本族语规则与非本族语规则。语用教学的预期结果是获得再生成恰当策略的能力。这意味着学习者最终能够在交际过程中临场选用恰当的策略应对不断变化的情景。提出这一预期结果的预设是，使用英语通用语的交际具有动态性、不可预测性。交际者很难运用事先准备的规则来保证交际的成功。这里需要的是应对交际过程中出现问题的恰当策略。
注：以上内容选自文秋芳教授2016年发表于《语言科学》的文章。关于文秋芳教授对ELF的其他观点，请参见以下两篇文献：1）文秋芳，2014，英语通用语是什么：“实体论”与“非实体论”之争，《中国外语》（3）：4-11。2）文秋芳，2016，在英语通用语背景下重新认识语言与文化的关系，《外语教学理论与实践》（2）：1-7，12。
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