外语动机研究方法新进展

发布时间:2018-08-20 15:47浏览数:3369评论数:0 收藏

特邀主持人(许宏晨教授):外语学习动机一直是语言学习与教学中的重要因素之一,对学生语言学习结果产生重要影响。近年来,外语动机理论有了很大发展,相应的研究方法也更为有效、多元。本期热点聚焦选取了三篇国内外有关动机研究的高质量学术论文,从三个侧面介绍这一领域在研究方法上的新发展。彭剑娥的论文采用了验证性因子分析和结构方程模型的方法对一系列与动机相关的变量之间的关系进行了深入探讨。常海潮的论文采用回溯性访谈以及轨迹等效建模法探究英语学习者的学习动机变化机制。刘宏刚与寇金南的论文通过探索性因子分析与质性访谈相结合的方法考察了高校外语教师的访学动机。上述三篇学术论文对外语学习动机的研究方法各有特色,代表了当下动机研究的主流方法及趋势。

彭剑娥  教授 专家简介

L2 Motivational Self System, Attitudes, and Affect as Predictors of L2 WTC: An Imagined Community Perspective

 

Introduction

The importance of talking in order to learn (MacIntyre et al. 2003) has been widely accepted in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). The construct of willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC) has been accorded increasing research attention in recent years. L2 WTC refers to ‘‘a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2’’ (MacIntyre et al. 1998, p. 547). It is theorized to energize L2 communication actions and thereby facilitate language learning. Chinese students have often been observed to be incompetent in or even shun from English communication, which cannot satisfy the pressing demand for competent English users raised by China’s rapid growth against the backdrop of globalization.

Many early studies have shown that L2 WTC is intricately related with motivation to learn the L2 and attitudes known as integrativeness (Gardner 1985) in Canadian bilingual ethnic contexts (Clément et al. 2003; MacIntyre and Charos 1996). Integrativeness reflects an integrative orientation toward learning the L2 with a desire to interact or even identify with the L2 group. In contexts where English is learned as a foreign language (EFL), Yashima (2002) proposed the concept of ‘‘international posture’’ to capture learners’ attitudes toward what English symbolizes, or what is termed as an imagined community (Norton 2001). This appears to be a promising perspective to account for EFL learners’ language learning and communication in the era of globalization.

The theorizing of imagined communities has been particularly pertinent to researching English learning and communication in EFL contexts. Kanno and Norton (2003) defined imagined communities as ‘‘groups of people, not immediately tangible and accessible, with whom we connect through the power of the imagination’’ (p. 241). Imagination, according to Wenger (1998), is an important distinct mode of belonging to a community with which one creates images of the world and the self by transcending time and space. English is increasingly viewed to be detached from any specific Anglophone community but instead represents a worldwide global community. Hence, English language learning seems to implicate a process of learners’ negotiation of their identities as members of such a global community conceived in their minds, or an imagined global community (Ryan 2006).

The recently proposed theory of L2 motivational self system (Dörnyei 2005, 2009) also draws on the notion of imagination. This theory posits that learners’ vision of their future selves as L2 users engaging in interaction with members of a given community provides motivational impetus for L2 learning. This community may be real or exist in learners’ imagination. This theory has demonstrated its validity in accounting for motivated learning behavior in EFL contexts (Csizér and Kormos 2009; Papi and Teimouri 2012; Taguchi et al. 2009). However, its influence on L2 WTC, another type of motivational propensity, remains largely under-investigated.

From the perspective of imagined communities, international posture and English-related future selves reflect learners’ sense of legitimate English speakers in a global community, which may propel their WTC in English. This study aims to examine to what extent EFL learners’ WTC in English is predicted by their L2 motivational self system, international posture, and language anxiety, the last one being an indispensable antecedent of L2 WTC.

The Study

This study explored the interrelationships between the L2 motivational self system, international posture, L2 anxiety, and L2 WTC using structural equation modeling (SEM).

Instrument

The questionnaire used in this study was anonymous and comprised a demographic section and scales measuring L2 motivational self system, international posture, and anxiety. The scales were adopted from the existing literature and used a six-point Likert response scale. The questionnaire was translated into Chinese by the author. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed for each scale to establish measurement validity.

Hypothesized Model

Based on the previous research, a hypothetical model, as illustrated in Fig. 1, was proposed to describe the interrelationships of three types of variables: motivational (the three components of the L2 motivational self system), affective (international posture and L2 anxiety), and communicational (L2 WTC).

Fig. 1 The hypothesized model

Participants and Procedures

The participants of this study were 1,073 students recruited from six universities in China. Upon deleting cases with missing values and outliers, 1,013 valid cases were retained for data analysis (male n = 671; female n = 342). The average age of the participants was 19.40 years, with nine unreported. They were all freshmen and sophomores, for whom English was a compulsory subject in the first 2 years of their studies.

The teachers in the targeted universities were contacted and informed of the research purposes and procedures. The prospective participants were told that their participation was optional and no identifiable personal information would be revealed in any case. The Chinese version of the questionnaire was administered to the participants in their regular class time. The questionnaire took approximately 15 min to complete.

Results

Preliminary Analysis

The hypothesized model was tested using LISREL 8.70. The assumption of univariate normality was met since the values of skewness and kurtosis of each item fell within the range of  -2 and +2 (Kunnan, 1998). The data deviate from ideal multivariate normality, since the Mardia’s coefficients for the measurement models ranged between 3.08 and 21.54. Robust maximum likelihood estimation was thus used because it tends to provide estimates robust to non-normal distribution (Brown 2006).

Testing the Measurement Models

The data were analyzed at two stages: testing the measurement models for the six latent variables using CFAs and testing the full structural model using SEM. The reliability of the instrumentation was assessed by examining the internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α). The adequacy of the measurement models and the ensuing full structural model was evaluated using the chi-square (χ2) statistic, normedχ2 (χ2/df), and other goodness-of-fit measures. The values of normed χ2 ranging from 2 to 5 are deemed acceptable (Kline 2005). Several fit indexes were considered: the Root Mean-Square Error Approximation (RMSEA), Standardized Root Mean-square Residual (SRMR), Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), the Normed Fit Index (NFI), and the Comparative Fit Index (CFI). Generally, the RMSEA and SRMR should be lower than 0.08, and the GFI, NFI, and CFI should have values greater than 0.90 for a model to display acceptable goodness of fit (Byrne 1998). Items were dropped from the measurement models based on the joint guidelines: a) the t statistics for their corresponding parameter estimate was below ±1.96 and their R2 value was below 0.30 or greater than 1.00; b) there was theoretical justification (Byrne 1998).

The CFAs results showed that the measurement models for ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, L2 learning experience, and L2 anxiety were respectively unidimensional with reasonable goodness of fit. The three-factor measurement model for international posture was confirmed with four items progressively removed based on the above-mentioned guidelines. The L2 WTC scale, however, was found to have two dimensions: L2 WTC inside the classroom (WTCIN) and L2 WTC outside the classroom (WTCOUT) (see Peng 2013). Following Yashima (2002), item scores for IAAT, IIVA, and IIN were averaged to form three composite variables, which were specified as three indicators for international posture in the full structural model.

Testing the Full Structural Model

The initial analysis indicated that the hypothetical model provided an acceptable fit to the data. However, the paths leading respectively from L2 learning experience and L2 anxiety to L2 WTC outside the classroom were non-significant. For the sake of model parsimony, they were progressively removed. The final model reasonably fits the data (i.e., χ2 = 1945.59; df = 516; χ2/df = 3.77; RMSEA = .05; SRMR = .06; GFI = .89; NFI = .92; CFI = .94). The variances of the endogenous variables explained by this model are 63 % for ideal L2 self, 34 % for international posture, 17 % for L2 anxiety, and 28 and 3 % for L2 WTC inside and outside the classroom. The model is displayed in Fig. 2.

To further explore these relationships, the direct, indirect, and total effects were examined. The results, which were reported in the original article, are not presented here due to space constraints.

Fig. 2 Full structural equation model

Discussion (except)

The present findings have inspired further reflection on how to interpret EFL learners’ learning and communication in a globalized era. The notions of future self-guides and international posture appear to apply to the current context. It seems plausible that the widespread use of English aided by information technology facilitates learners’ imagination of membership of an imagined global community. Energized by imagination, learners would be able to envision English-related possible selves (Dörnyei 2009), or the selves situated in an English-used community however spatially and temporally remote from the real world (Yashima 2009), which accelerate their motivation to learn and communicate in English.

On the other hand, the model suggests that the total effects of the self-constructs on WTC were not substantially strong, implying that the formation or motivational capacity of English-related selves among EFL learners may not be taken for granted. As Dörnyei (2009) emphasized, the future self-guides should be elaborate and vivid. An imagined future self is not formed out of nothing, but should be experiential, representing ‘‘‘self state’ that people experience as reality’’ (ibid, p. 16). The reality of

English learning and teaching in the current context remains largely exam-oriented. Success in examinations is a key to winning competitions for tertiary education opportunities or job openings. The intensified need for success in English examinations may undermine learners’ tendency or energy to identify with the global world. While globalization is changing the world, its influence on EFL learners’ learning behavior may not be explicitly discernible. As Ryan (2006) stated, ‘‘it is incredible to argue that individuals feel like ‘global citizens’ all the time’’ (p. 33). Therefore, it requires significant others such as language educators and parents to shepherd learners toward a vision of ideal L2 selves and an awareness of their participation in the global community.

Conclusion

The results of this study have demonstrated that the L2 motivational self system is applicable to this research context. L2 learning experience and international posture were the two strong predictors of ideal L2 self, which justifies the needs to endow EFL learners with positive language learning experience and a world perspective that favors the value of English. The effects of ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self on L2 anxiety indicated that a vision of English-related ideal self could reduce anxiety in English use. L2 WTC inside the classroom was predicted by a number of variables examined in this study, whereas there seemed to be more factors that would account for L2 WTC outside the classroom. The results were further interpreted from the perspective of an imagined global community. This study is of far-reaching pertinence for understanding EFL learners’ English learning as involving a reconstruction of identities implicated in the process of globalization.

 

文章出处

Peng, J. (2015). L2 motivational self system, attitudes, and affect as predictors of L2 WTC: An imagined community perspective. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 24, 433-443.

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常海潮  副教授 专家简介

英语专业学生学习动机变化机制研究——基于定向动机流理论的定性考察

学习动机是二语/外语习得个体差异的重要成因之一,对二语/外语学习效果具有直接影响。我国是英语教学大国,立足于我国高校英语教学的学习动机研究显得尤为重要。以往研究大都着眼于样本数量,在一定意义上偏离了差异的“个体”本位,且无法洞察学习动机变化规律。本研究从定性角度考察我国英语专业学生学习动机的动态变化机制,旨在为高校改进英语教学模式、提升英语教学质量提供有益启示。本研究以10名英语专业研究生为受访对象,采用两阶段质性访谈法,通过轨迹等效建模对其本科4年期间的学习动机变化机制进行探究。首先,研究对象在课程表中填入本科期间的英语课程,以8周为基础时标标出自己学习动机强度的最低点和最高点,并绘制8个学期的动机轨迹。之后,笔者根据课程表和轨迹图进行访谈:第一阶段,受访者详述自己的英语学习动机行为,每人访谈时间为 30—40分钟;第二阶段,受访者简要描述自己学习动机流的自动性。本研究摒弃了简化论,采用非线性范式,从静态研究转向动态、互联研究,从关注结果转向重视过程:着眼于学习动机历时变化,聚焦学习动机个体变异,进而考察动机变化的成因机制。具体研究结果如下:

1. 学生学习动机的历时特征

图1[1]显示,大学本科4年期间英语专业学生的英语学习动机轨迹总体呈起伏和波动趋 势,形成一条条动机流,流体分野和衔接的标志是不同变化点的吸引子状态。

 

图1 英语学习动机轨迹图

1.1 动机流的起伏与波动

英语专业学生的10条动机轨迹中,C、D、E、F、G、I等6条轨迹在第2节点小幅波动之后,呈现持续上升趋势,上升过程中仍伴随小幅起伏,而A、B、H、J等4条轨迹的波动相对较大。第8节点之后,几乎所有轨迹进入相对稳定的动机较强状态。除B之外,其他轨迹在第15节点之后开始快速下降。由此可见,受访者英语学习动机不是一种恒定特质(trait),而是不断变化的动机“流”(current),流体波动幅度不一,变化方向各异。

1.2动机流的吸引子状态

图1中,每条动机轨迹的动态变化都伴有承前启后的“状态”,具体表现为动机轨迹节点。这种状态不是通常意义上的静止状态,而是动机系统构成要素之间的互动模式,即具有分野和衔接功能的动机行为模式。根据动态系统理论,系统“偏爱”(prefer)的状态(Larsen-Freeman & Cameron 2008:49)或系统构成要素共同趋向的状态(Byrne & Callaghan 2014:27)为吸引子状态。吸引子状态是系统动态变化的重要标志,能够清晰显现系统变化特征。

动机轨迹图和访谈内容显示,受访者学习动机轨迹呈现两层时标吸引子状态。第一层时 标吸引子状态有3个(图1椭圆圈选部分),分别位于第2、8、15节点,标志着动机流强度低、中、高3个点位。第二层时标吸引子状态为除第1、15、17节点之外的其他奇数节点,时间大致在每个学期期末。这些节点形成学习动机流的一个个小高峰,体现出受访者的学习动机趋于相对强烈。

 

2 学生学习动机的个体变异

访谈文本分析显示,受访者英语学习动机的个体特征主要表现在目标/愿景定向性、促成性结构两个维度及其构成要素上。

2.1 目标/愿景定向性

目标/愿景定向性指学习者拟定一个目标或愿景作为动机行为的前行方向。定向动机流 理论认为,唯有目标/愿景定向性才能调动各种学习资源,激发学习者学习动机,因此它是这一理论最主要的特征和构成要素,是动机流产生的前提条件。访谈文本显示,参加并通过研究生入学考试是所有受访者的定向目标,但只是个别受访者的愿景。[2]

2.2. 促成性结构

促成性结构指动机流一旦形成,便循着清晰路径跳跃式、螺旋式前进,它既是动机流路径, 也是动机行为结果。这种独特结构包括初始状态(initial conditions)、进步标签(progress checks)、动机自动性3个主要因素。

3 定向动机流的成因机制

3.1期待回报: 定向动机流的促发机制

以Norton为代表的社会文化学派动机观把语言看作一种文化资本,以二语“投资”(investment)来取代学习“动机”。Norton(1995)明确指出,如果学习者向某种语言投资,是因为他们相信自己会得到比语言本身范围更广的象征性和物资性资源,从而提高自己文化资本的价值。在本研究中,受访者的家庭地域、家庭环境、经济状况、父母受教育程度等各不相同,但他们都把英语学习看作一种“投资”,家庭对受访者的英语学习都持有殷切的期待。这一期待确立了学习者的目标/愿景定向性,促发其学习动机。

3.2校园氛围:动机流波动的成因要素

受访者学习动机流呈现两个层面的吸引子状态。在第一层面,第2节点(见图1)是入学两个月左右,标志着学习动机的“低迷期”。除F、H、J之外,其他各条动机轨迹都被这一状态所“吸引”,共同趋向各自的低点。第8节点临近英语专业四级考试,代表学习动机的“上升期”。第15节点临近研究生入学考试,是名副其实的吸引子状态,标志着学习动机“高峰期”。在第二层面,除第1、15、17节点之外的奇数点是期末考试。这说明受访者的学习动机主要是“考试动机”,验证了Chen et al.(2005)的“中国式责任”(Chinese imperative)动机概念。“中国式责任”是一种“责任动机”(required motivation),即参加考试并努力获得成功是学习者不可推卸的责任,是学习行为的主要驱动力,是受访者英语学习动机流起伏状态的成因要素。

3.3课堂教学:动机流持续的必要条件

英语在我国是一门外语,其主要学习方式是课堂教学,而课堂教学的主导因素是教师,教师在学习者情感、认知、动机发展等方面具有不可替代的作用。二语学习动机三分法理论认为,学习者心理特点由情感、认知、动机3个维度构成(Dörnyei & Ushioda 2014:91)。它们相互影响,相互促成,“情感蕴含认知,认知蕴含动机,动机蕴含情感,如此循环往复”(Buck 2005)。因此,学习动机是英语课堂上各种要素和过程相互作用的软集合。正如 Ushioda(2015)所说:“语言学习者对语言输入的反应方式会影响学习交互环境中的后续输入内容和输入质量”,而强烈学习动机又促使受访者更加努力学习并配合教师教学,从而产生积极、正向的共生效果。

结语

研究结果表明,受访对象的学习动机形成起伏波动的动机流,流体分野和衔接的吸引子状态是各个阶段的英语考试;学习动机个体变异主要体现在目标/愿景定向性、促成性结构两个维度及其构成要素上;期待回报、校园氛围和课堂教学是学习动机流变化的成因机制。本研究对于高校英语教学启示包括:在入学初期尽可能营造良好学习氛围以激发学生学习动机;适时关注关键节点的学习动机变化情况,努力促进学生学习 动机的正向发展;实施个性化课堂教学,确保学习动机持久不衰。



[1] 受访者使用的空白轨迹图纵坐标刻度单位为2,图1为简明、清晰起见将刻度单位简化为4,图2的处理相同。

[2] 根据Dörnyei & Kubanyiova(2014)的观点,愿景和目标都指为达到将来状态所持有的定向目的,但是除具有目标的抽象性、认知性等特点外,愿景还包含感官要素,即与实现目标相关的有形景象(tangible images)。

 

文章出处

常海潮,(2017)。英语专业学生学习动机变化机制研究——基于定向动机流理论的定性考察。《外语界》,(3),39-47。

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刘宏刚  副教授 专家简介

 

高校英语教师访学动机的实证研究

在过去的近30年时间里,大批高校英语教师通过国内访学途径,在国内著名学府完成了自己的学术进修。对于英语教师来说,访学进修是他们迫切需要的在职学习、自我提升的有效途径(吴一安等,2007),对于访问学者群体展开的研究也逐渐引起了外语教师教育研究者的关注(如王晓华等,2006;周燕,2008),但相关研究还不系统,对于高校英语教师为什么在诸多进修方式(如参加研修班和各种学术会议)中选择访学作为自我发展途径,目前还鲜有学者开展研究。基于此,本研究选择访问学者的访学动机作为研究课题,希望在这方面进行有益探索。本研究通过问卷调查的方式,对全国118所高校的182名英语教师的访学动机进行了实证研究。首先采用探索性因子分析的方法,自然析出7种动机因子。

1. 访学动机类型

因子1与教师所在的学校的“情境”有关,体现在两个方面:(1)访学单位的知名度,如学校在外语学术界有名气、有学术圈的领军人物、有良好的学术氛围;(2)能够在该单位获取前沿学术资料和信息以及专家的指点。借用学生二语/外语情境动机的术语,将因子1命名为学术情境动机,这是以往成人学习动机研究中未曾提到的。

因子2与访学教师为了缓解工作压力,借访学之机调整自己有关。如调整自己对教学的厌烦感和工作倦怠感(burn-out),因此命名为压力缓解动机。这与国外学者发现的继续教育参与者希望通过学习逃避某些活动或者逃离某些不愉快的场景的“逃避动机”相似(Boshier,1971;Burgess,1971)。

因子3反映了教师希望通过访学增强竞争实力,获得他人尊重,获得一定的自尊感。能够获得访学资格是一种能力上的认可,而拥有访学的经历对教师来说也是一种象征资本(Bourdieu,1986)。这说明,访学可能是出于未来竞争的需要,因此命名该动机为“竞争需要动机”。

因子4体现了教师希望能够在访学结束后为单位科研和教学水平提高做贡献的愿望,是一种社会责任的体现,故将该因子命名为社会责任动机。这与前人发现的服务社会动机(Burgess,1971;李金波 许百华,2004;Boshier et al.,2006)相似,不同的是这里的社会责任特指访学教师为原单位的教学/学术共同体做贡献。

因子5与“建立联系”“发展关系”有关。一方面是教师和专家学者、学界名流建立学术关系;另外一方面,教师也期望通过访学帮助所在院系和访学单位建立联系。因此命名该因子为学术关系动机,这与 Burgess(1971)和 Boshier(1991)研究中提出的社会接触动机有相似之处。

因子6反映了教师想通过访学达到申报和完成课题和发表学术论文的目的,因此将该因子命名为学术成果获取动机。

因子7反映了教师通过提升自身能力,获得更多知识,明确今后发展方向的内心诉求,体现了教师学习过程中的一种内在兴趣,因此命名为求知兴趣动机。

2. 访学动机特点

为了清楚地显示教师访学动机的不同类型,本研究计算了不同类型动机的均值和标准差。由于本研究采用的是李克特六级量表,因此均值小于4时,表明该动机不强。

 

表1 教师访学动机的描述性统计

从表1的统计结果可以看出,教师访学动机总体上较强(M=4.256;SD=0.508);而在所有7个动机因子中:

(1)学术情境动机得分(M = 5. 255; SD = 0. 593)最高。这反映了情境因素在学习者继续教育过程中的重要作用。

(2)求知兴趣动机((M = 5. 250; SD = 0. 670)得分排在第二,这与李金波和许百华(2004)等研究者的研究结果一致,表明教师访学的主要目的为了求得知识、获取信息,是出自个人的内在兴趣的。这也反映了目前高校英语教师在科研和教学压力倍增的环境下,渴望充电的强烈愿望(周燕,2005)。

(3)教师的社会责任动机(M = 4. 453;SD = 0. 963)排位第三,说明教师访学具有一定的社会责任目的,他们在追求个人发展同时,也希望自己能为原单位科研和教学发展做贡献。

(4)访问学者具有较强的学术关系动机(M=4.415;SD=0.863)。该动机是以往国内外成人继续教育参与动机中未曾提到的动机类型,它突出反映了教师访学与其他形式继续教育不同之处,即访学过程的学术性。访学教师在追求个人学术资本获得的同时,也希望通过访学与专家建立联系,掌握更多的社会资本(Bourdieu,1986),为自己今后的学术发展积攒“人脉”。

(5)学术成果获取动机排在倒数第三位(M=3.863;SD=0.909)。在对访问学者的访谈中,85%的老师提到自己来访学的是为了“发一两篇像样的文章,最好是C刊”或“申请个大项目”这些与学术获取成果相关的目的。但总体数据显示,教师的学术成果获取动机排名并不高,这一方面可能是因为教师的主要访学动机是内在的求知兴趣,而学术成果获取是外在动机,对教师来说并不是主要目的。

(6)压力缓解动机的得分不高(M = 3. 183;SD = 1. 185),这可能是因为教师访学的主要目的是通过学习自我提升,而不是为了彻底放松。同时,教学压力没了,琐碎事情少了,但访学带来的学术、科研压力却随之而来,压力缓解只是相对而言。

(7)竞争需要动机得分排在最末( M = 2.889;SD = 1. 092) ,这和前人的研究发现有所不同。任亮和徐富明(2005)发现,中小学教师在攻读教育硕士学位过程中,竞争需要动机较强。而本研究中的访问学者竞争需要动机在所有动机中最弱,这可能与访学本身不是学历教育,在职称评定等方面不是硬指标有一定关系。

值得一提的是,本研究没有发现国内成人学习动机研究中提到的他人影响动机(即受到父母、亲人和有类似学习经历的朋友的影响),这说明高校教师具有较强的自我判断和选择能力,能够根据实际情况衡量好是否需要外出访学。

结语

在这7 种访学动机中,学术情境动机、学术关系动机和学术成果获取动机拓展了成人学习动机研究的理论成果;压力缓解动机和社会责任动机是前人提出的逃避刺激动机(如Houle,1961;Boshier,1971,1991)和服务社会动机(李金波 许百华,2004)在访学情境中的具体化。我们认为,各高校应当意识到,教师具有多元的访学动机,因此应当给教师更多的访学机会,加强教师培训的力度(周燕,2002),满足他们的内在求知欲,降低职业倦怠带来的工作负效应,为教师的职业发展提供支持环境。对于接收访问学者的院系、外语研究中心来说,应该注重自身的访问学者培养体系建设,满足具有强烈访学动机的老师的需求。

 

寇金南,大连理工大学外国语学院副教授,硕士研究生导师,主要研究方向为第二语言习得、外语教育、应用语言学。

 

文章出处

刘宏刚、寇金南,(2014),高校英语教师访学动机的实证研究,《外语与外语教学》,(6),13-19。

 

 

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