- Michel, M. C. (2013). The use of conjunctions in cognitively simple versus complex oral L2 tasks. The Modern Language Journal, 97, 178-195.
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摘要:The present study explores the use of conjunctions in simple versus complex argumentative tasks performed by second language (L2) learners as a specific measure for the amount of reasoning involved in task performance. The Cognition Hypothesis (Robinson, 2005) states that an increase in cognitive task complexity promotes improvements in L2 performance. This effect should become particularly visible when task-specific performance measures are used (Robinson & Gilabert, 2007). This article evaluates these claims by investigating the oral performance of 64 L2 learners on cognitively simple, as compared with cognitively complex, oral argumentative reasoning tasks. The analysis focuses first on the overall frequency and occurrence of conjunctions. Next, 5 conjunctions that are considered to be highly task-relevant are examined more closely. Results are discussed in light of the speech production of 44 native speakers who performed the same tasks under the same conditions. The discussion addresses implications of the findings for the cognitive approach to task-based L2 research in light of Robinson's (2005) Cognition Hypothesis. From the standpoint of research methodology it highlights the benefits of native speaker data as a baseline for comparison.
关键词:applied linguistics, non-native language learning languages other than English, Conjunctions, Second Language Learning, Argumentation, Complexity, Cognitive Processes, Reasoning, Speech Production
- Kim, You-Jin. (2012). Task complexity, learning opportunities, and Korean EFL learners' question development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34, 627-658.
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摘要:Building on the cognitive and interactive perspectives of task research, the cognition hypothesis states that increasing task complexity promotes greater interaction and feedback and thus facilitates second language (L2) development (Robinson, 2001b, 2007a). To date, very little research has explored this claim during learner-learner interactions in English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom contexts in which a task-based syllabus is implemented. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of task complexity on the occurrence of interaction-driven learning opportunities and question development in such a classroom context. Korean university students (N = 191) from four intact English classes were randomly assigned to one comparison group and three experimental groups with various task-complexity levels (i.e., simple, + complex, and + + complex) based on Robinson's framework. Their interactions were audiorecorded, and occurrences of learning opportunities, operationalized as language-related episodes (LREs), were identified. Question development was identified between pretest and posttests on the basis of the learners' stage advancement using Pienemann and Johnston's (1987) developmental sequence. Results indicated that more complex tasks promoted a greater number of LREs and particularly led to LREs targeting developmentally advanced question structures, which result in question development. Adapted from the source document
关键词:applied linguistics, English as a second/foreign language instruction, English as a Second Language Learning, English as a Second Language Instruction, Classroom Communication, Complexity, Questions, Educational Activities, English as a Second Language Teaching Methods
- Gan, Zhengdong. (2012). Complexity measures, task type, and analytic evaluations of speaking proficiency in a school-based assessment context. Language Assessment Quarterly, 9, 133-151.
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摘要:This study, which is part of a large-scale study of using objective measures to validate assessment rating scales and assessment tasks in a high-profile school-based assessment initiative in Hong Kong, examined how grammatical complexity measures relate to task type and analytic evaluations of students' speaking proficiency in a classroom-based assessment context. An in-depth analysis of oral performance on two different assessment tasks (i.e., monologic vs. interactive) from 30 English as a Second Language, Cantonese-mother-tongue, secondary school students was conducted using a range of measures of grammatical complexity derived from the previous second language (L2) speaking and writing studies. Results showed that the individual presentation task tended to promote not only a greater number of T-units, clauses, verb phrases, and words but also longer T-units and utterances, thus probably stretching learners more in terms of complexity of grammatical and lexical processing. Results also showed that complexity measures recommended as among the most useful complexity measures demonstrated no significant correlations with analytic ratings of learner speaking proficiency. These findings were then discussed in light of the complex, dynamic, and developmental nature of grammatical complexity as well as in light of a learner-, task-, and L2 form-sensitive account of L2 oral production. Adapted from the source document
关键词:applied linguistics, language testing and assessment, Hong Kong, Cantonese, English as a Second Language Tests, Test Validity and Reliability, Oral Language, Complexity, Secondary School Students
- Delaney, T. (2012). Quality and quantity of oral participation and English proficiency gains. Language Teaching Research, 16(4), 467-482.
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摘要:There are many reasons to believe that oral participation in the target language (TL) is beneficial for classroom language learners. In addition to the prominence current second language acquisition (SLA) theory gives to processes that assume learner production of the TL (e.g. negotiation of meaning), teachers often view oral participation as a measure of learner involvement. Thus, it is often assumed that learners who participate often are likely to make greater proficiency gains. This correlational study examined this assumption by investigating the relationship between learners' oral participation in classes for English as a foreign language (EFL) at a Japanese university and their gains in TL proficiency. Results indicated that while the quality of learners' participation (accuracy, complexity, and fluency) was positively related to gains in TL ability, quantity of participation was not. While not indicative of a cause-effect relationship, the results suggest that teachers might wish to consider encouraging quality of participation as well as quantity.
关键词:participation, proficiency gains, quality, quantity, accuracy, fluency, complexity, JapanJapanese
- Kormos, J., & Trebits, A. (2012). The role of task complexity, modality, and aptitude in narrative task performance. Language Learning, 62, 439-472.
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摘要:The study reported in this paper investigated the relationship between components of aptitude and the fluency, lexical variety, syntactic complexity, and accuracy of performance in two types of written and spoken narrative tasks. We also addressed the question of how narrative performance varies in tasks of different cognitive complexity in the written and spoken modes. Our findings indicate a complex interaction between aptitude components and task performance under different conditions. The components of aptitude that seemed to be most strongly related to the complexity and accuracy of production were inductive ability and grammatical sensitivity. The results also show that in writing the participants used more varied vocabulary than in speech, but their performance was similar in terms of syntactic complexity. Adapted from the source document
关键词:applied linguistics, non-native language learning languages other than English, Language Proficiency, Complexity, Second Language Learning, Language Acquisition, Syntactic Complexity, Fluency
- Skehan, P., Xiaoyue, B., Qian, L., & Wang, Z. (2012). The task is not enough: Processing approaches to task-based performance. Language Teaching Research, 16(2), 170-187.
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摘要:This article reports on three research studies, all of which concern second language task performance. The first focuses on planning, and compares on-line and strategic planning as well as task repetition. The second study examines the role of familiarity on task performance, and compares this with conventional strategic planning. The third study examines the effect on task performance of different types of post-task transcription. The three studies are also examined in relation to one another for the broader generalizations that they permit. These suggest that repetition can be stronger in its effects than on-line or strategic planning, but that planning is more potent in its effects than simply familiarity with the material being spoken about. In addition, what is termed supported on-line planning and post-task transcription are associated with less error in performance. The three studies are discussed in terms of the wider second language performance processes of complexifying, rehearsing and monitoring. These processes are linked to the Levelt model of speaking, and applied to the need to analyse tasks in a manner consistent with pedagogic goals.
- Ahmadian, M. J. (2012). The effects of guided careful online planning on complexity, accuracy and fluency in intermediate EFL learners' oral production: The case of English articles. Language Teaching Research, 16(1), 129-149.
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摘要:The purpose of the study reported in this article was twofold: First, to see whether guided careful online planning assists intermediate learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) in accurate oral production of English articles (an/a and the); and, second, to see whether guided careful online planning has any effects on global complexity and fluency of intermediate EFL learners' oral language performance. Forty-five intermediate EFL learners were required to perform an oral narrative task under three planning conditions: guided careful online planning, unguided careful online planning, and pressured online planning (n = 15). Results pointed to the positive effects of guided careful online planning on the accurate production of English articles as well as the global complexity of language in learners' speech. However, compared to pressured online planners, the global fluency of guided and unguided careful online planners was adversely affected. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright holder.]
关键词:applied linguistics, English as a second/foreign language learning, English as a Second Language Instruction, Complexity, English as a Second Language Learning, Articles, Learning Processes, English as a Second Language Teaching Methods, English
- Crossley, S. A., Allen, D., & McNamara, D. S. (2012). Text simplification and comprehensible input: A case for an intuitive approach. Language Teaching Research, 16(1), 89-108.
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摘要:Texts are routinely simplified to make them more comprehensible for second language learners. However, the effects of simplification upon the linguistic features of texts remain largely unexplored. Here we examine the effects of one type of text simplification: intuitive text simplification. We use the computational tool, Coh-Metrix, to examine linguistic differences between proficiency levels of a corpus of 300 news texts that had been simplified to three levels of simplification (beginner, intermediate, advanced). The main analysis reveals significant differences between levels for a wide range of linguistic features, particularly between beginner and advanced levels. The results show that lower level texts are generally less lexically and syntactically sophisticated than higher-level texts. The analysis also reveals that lower level texts contain more cohesive features than higher-level texts. The analysis also provides strong evidence that these linguistic features can be used to classify levels of simplified reading texts. Overall, the findings support the notion that intuitively simplified texts at the beginning level contain more linguistic features related to comprehensible input than intuitively simplified texts at the advanced level. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright holder.]
关键词:applied linguistics, non-native language learning languages other than English, descriptive linguistics, computational/mathematical linguistics and machine translation, Second Language Learning, Corpus Linguistics, Computational Linguistics, Complexity, Computer Generated Language Analysis, Text Analysis, Language Teaching Materials
- Ahmadian, M. J., & Tavakoli, M. (2011). The effects of simultaneous use of careful online planning and task repetition on accuracy, complexity, and fluency in EFL learners' oral production. Language Teaching Research, 15(1), 35-59.
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摘要:This article reports on a study that was primarily aimed at investigating the effects of simultaneous use of careful online planning and task repetition on accuracy, complexity, and fluency in the oral production of learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). The effects of four planning and task repetition conditions (i.e. careful online planning without task repetition, pressured online planning with task repetition, careful online planning with task repetition, and pressured online planning without task repetition) on learners' accuracy, complexity, and fluency in producing English language were investigated. Iranian intermediate-level EFL learners (n = 60) were randomly selected and assigned to the four task conditions. The results obtained from one-way ANOVAs revealed that the opportunity to engage simultaneously in careful online planning and task repetition enhances accuracy, complexity, and fluency significantly. The obtained results also have some implications for teachers and practitioners in EFL context. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright holder.]
关键词:applied linguistics, English as a second/foreign language learning, English as a Second Language Learning, Speech Tests, Fluency, Repetition, Complexity, Iran
- Revesz, A. (2011). Task complexity, focus on L2 constructions, and individual differences: A classroom-based study. The Modern Language Journal, 95(Supplement), 162-181.
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摘要:Motivated by cognitive-interactionist frameworks for task-based learning, this study explored whether task complexity affects the extent to which learners focus on form-meaning connections during task-based work in a classroom setting, and whether this relationship is modulated by three individual difference factors -- linguistic self-confidence, anxiety, and self-perceived communicative competence. 43 ESL learners from six intact classes worked in self-selected groups during their normal English classes. Each group performed two versions of the same argumentative task -- a simple and a complex version. The topics of the discussions were comparable, and the sequence of the tasks was counterbalanced. Twenty-three hours of audio- and videotaped data were collected and coded in terms of global and specific measures of speech production and various interactional features hypothesized to facilitate attention to L2 constructions. Self-report questionnaires were employed to determine the mediating effects of the individual difference variables. Quantitative analyses revealed the following significant trends: When task complexity was increased, participants demonstrated lower syntactic complexity but greater accuracy and lexical diversity. In addition, the more complex task proved more effective in inducing the use of specific, developmentally advanced constructions and in promoting interaction-driven language learning opportunities. However, only slight significant effects were observed for individual differences. Adapted from the source document
关键词:applied linguistics, English as a second/foreign language learning, Individual Differences, Learning Processes, Cognitive Processes, English as a Second Language Learning, English as a Second Language Instruction, Educational Activities, Complexity
- Biber, D., Gray, B., & Poonpon, K. (2011). Should we use characteristics of conversation to measure grammatical complexity in L2 writing development?. TESOL Quarterly, 45(1), 5-35.
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摘要:Studies of L2 writing development usually measure T-units and clausal subordination to assess grammatical complexity, assuming that increased subordination is typical of advanced writing. In this article we challenge this practice by showing that these measures are much more characteristic of conversation than academic writing. The article begins with a critical evaluation of T-units and clausal subordination as measures of writing development, arguing that they have not proven to be effective discriminators of language proficiency differences. These shortcomings lead to the question of whether these measures actually capture the complexities of professional academic writing, and if not, what alternative measures are better suited? Corpus-based analyses are undertaken to answer these questions, investigating 28 grammatical features in research articles contrasted with conversation. The results are surprising, showing that most clausal subordination measures are actually more common in conversation than academic writing. In contrast, fundamentally different kinds of grammatical complexity are common in academic writing: complex noun phrase constituents (rather than clause constituents) and complex phrases (rather than clauses). Based on these findings, we hypothesize a sequence of developmental stages for student writing, proposing a radically new approach for the study of complexity in student writing development. Adapted from the source document
关键词:applied linguistics, writing instruction, acquisition, processes, and testing, Writing Acquisition, Second Language Writing, Second Language Learning, Complexity, Corpus Analysis, Conversation, Academic Writing, Subordination Grammatical
- Lorenzo, F., Moore, P., & Casal, S. (2011). On complexity in bilingual research: The causes, effects, and breadth of content and language integrated learning-a reply to Bruton (2011). Applied Linguistics, 32, 450-455.
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摘要:This article proposes that a complex issue such as bilingualism gives rise to a need for complex research. Complexity theories, both in the psycholinguistic and educational fields, may inspire new empirical studies on bilingualism that will likely provide data otherwise unattainable through classic pre-test/post-test methods. The article also warns against hardcore educational egalitarianism which may seriously harm Content and Language Integrated Learning programmes if they become one-size-fits-all models. The article has been written in response to a reply to these authors' original article Lorenzo et al. (2010). Adapted from the source document
关键词:article, applied linguistics, bilingualism, multilingualism, bilingual education, psycholinguistics, bilingual language processing, Bilingualism, Content Area Instruction, Complexity, Bilingual Education, Psycholinguistics